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CRS83522Spage16
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, a continuing dilemma in higher education may be how to resolve the conflict between the pressures resulting from (1) State and Federal controls, (2) external review to assure maintenance of quality and institutional standards, and (3) the desire to maintain institutional autonomy. STUDENT AID The extension of college opportunities to virtually all interested youth in the U.S. can be traced through two
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“\_/ CRS-19 higher education are the States, local governments, the Federal Government, and private sources. gg/ In providing higher education institutional support, the States (and local- ities for community colleges) have concentrated heavily on support of public in- stitutions. Direct Federal support for institutions has been limited to specific purposes or types of institutions, but the funds
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CRS83522Spage06
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for the appropriate responses at the institutional, State, and Federal levels. During the 1960s, the college-age cohort grew by 53 percent (from 16.1 mil- lion in 1960 to 24.7 million in 1970). This growth slowed to a 19 percent in- crease during the 1970s (to 29.5 million in 1980). However, this trend is expected to reverse in the 1980s with this cohort shrinking by 15 percent (to 25.1 million in 1990-or
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CRS83522Spage32
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under the American Council on Education's program for evaluation of college level offerings by cor- vporations. Some of these programs have expanded to the point that firms have received approval for offering baccalaureate and advanced degrees. §§/ géf Rich, Spencer. Off-Campus: Schools for Dollars. The Washington. Post, November 11, 1980. pp. A-1, A-8; and Brazziel, p. S. 2]] Davies, Goeffrey
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CRS83522Spage18
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CRS-14 TABLE 1. Total Budgets for Resident Students Living in Institutional Housing Academic Year Type and Control of Institution Public Private Public Private 2-year 2-year 4-year 4-year ].972"73ooooooooooooooooooooo0 1977480000000000000000000000 198218300OOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOO l I _g/ Data not available. Source: College Entrance Examination Board publications for various years. Note: Total
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for the past 10 years were available, total budgets have more than doubled. The rate of increase was relatively consistent for all groups of insti- tutions, but the disparity has increased. For example, the difference in total budget between public and private four-year institutions was less than $1,300 in 1972-73, but had increased to'over $3,000 by 1982-83. 15/ Gladieux, Lawrence E. The Future
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CRS83522Spage20
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CRS-16 3. Has the current student aid program, combined with open admission to many institutions, made college a relatively inexpensive "escape" especially for ambivalent or weakly motivated students? 4. Does the program relieve financially able parents of their tradi- tional responsibility to pay the college expenses of their children? 5. Does student aid subsidize students beyond
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CRS83522Spage03
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ABSTRACT American higher education is confronted with interactive challenges related to demographics, a reduced rate of economic growth, increased private sector cooperation, and rising demands from other social services. These developments will impact on institutional enrollment, role and mission, and fiscal support, as well as possible Federal options.
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CRS84686ENRpage17
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CRS-5 There is a scientific consensus that man-made emissions have increased the acidity of precipitation over eastern North America, but also that existing data and studies do not constitute an adequate basis for determining the details of past patterns in precipitation acidity. Problems with earlier determination of pH and other factors have called into question all previous at- tempts to define specific rates and patterns of increased precipi- tation acidity in eastern North America. Monitoring and research efforts are now underway that will allow improved interpretation of historical data and confident assessment of trends in the future. -in "It is important to note that rainfall acidity, or "wet deposition" is only part of total acid deposition, although the most well-known. Perhaps an even greater portion of total acid deposition in some cases falls in T dry forms, particularly near emission sources. However, as stated by Dr. Bernabo in response to written questions from the Committee, no standardized scientific techniques currently exist to measure dry deposition on a routine basis: The relative ratio of wet to dry deposition is unknown. Dry depositon may account for 25% to 80% or more of the acidity deposited in some areas. The timing, amount, and composition of this wet and dry deposition can influence the effects on the sensitive receptors. While a national wet deposition network is operational, no standardized scientific techniques yet exist to measure dry deposition on a routine basis. Near the emission sources, dry deposition is believed to be an important contributor, possibly a predominant contributor, of acid-forming substances due in part to rapid settling of heavier particles. The ratio of wet to dry deposition is also very dependent on weather. If there is a period of low or no precipitation over a broad area, clearly the dry deposition would have to be greater than wet, which might be zero due to the lack of moisture. The National Program has accelerated its research effort on wet and dry acid deposition.
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CRS84686ENRpage09
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.Association Inc., testimony and statement *2. *3. *4_ *5. ,6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Edward L. Addison, President and Chief Exec. Officer, The Southern Co., for Edison Electric Institute -testimony, statement and research. Michael Bergman, Staff Scientist, American Public Power Associatio -- testimony and statement plus APPA research report % Carl Bagge, President, National Coal Association - testimony and statement plus
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CRS84686ENRpage32
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, ‘~ A " measure for creating'a desirable ecological balance that approach should be pursued. A cost-sharing federal-state prototype program might be advisable over the next ten years. It is hardly likely that even a large effort involving 200 lakes would cost as much as $20 million/year in 1983 dollars. [According to EPRI, lake-liming costs should average about $60 per acre. The 178 Adirondack
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CRS84686ENRpage82
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on gas use by powerplants and industry; (2) incorporating in proposed S02 reduction legislation performance standards rather than specific fuels or control strategies; and~(3) directing the Environmental Protection Agency to accept select use as a viable and desirable control technology- under existing provisions of the Clean Air Act. CLEAN COAL COALITION, INC. The Clean Coal Coalition therefore
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CRS84686ENRpage51
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CRS-39 Perhaps the most vigorous debate on compliance costs concerned the most appropriate reduction strategy to be employed if such reductions were deemed necessary. Several witnesses, including Senator Mitchell, the Alliance for Clean Energy (a low-sulfur coal group), the Mining and Reclamation Council, the American Public Power Association, and others, favored a "freedom of choice" reduction strategy that would allow utilities to choose whatever reduetion method they wished. Under such a scenario, most analyses indicate that fuel-switching from high to lower sulfur coals would be the first-choice of many utilities, increasing low sulfur coal production at the expense of high sulfur coal production. Concern about the socio-economic impact of significant fuel-switching has resulted in a different strategy to mandate technological controls and some form of cost-sharing--either through a tax on electricity generated or a tax on sulfur and nitrogen oxides emissions. Many witnesses were openly. hostile to cost-sharing; for euample, Dr. Haase of the Western Regional Council stated that cost-sharing would "unjustifiably spread the cost (of reductions) to western States where major and costly emission reduction programs have already been implemented and where the potential for a future acid precipitation problem is significantly less than in the East." A was a sound principle; in response to questions by Senator Mike Evans, he said: The principle there, in my view, is that it ought to be the user who pays. And if we go into any other - any other system, we find ourselves deciding consciously that we are going to subsidize a particular activity. And we do this all over the lot, I acknowledge, as a society. But I'm saying it would be a sounder approach here to have the particular energy system that produces the pollutant bear the cost of preventing it. However, given the distribution of costs discussed earlier, Administrator Ruckelshaus acknowledged the practical and political problems of the polluter pays principle in response to a question by Senator Bennett Johnston: Secretary Hodel agreed that "polluter pays"
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CRS84686ENRpage48
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cxs-3e Although considerable research is being conducted, most of the scientists who testified felt that science could answer the question: Do we know enough to act? As stated by Dr. Perhac: Let me sumarize this testimony by saying that I feel that a fairly strong consensus exists in the scientific community that many significant gaps exist in our understanding of the acidic deposition issue. Whether those gaps are great enough to preclude governmental or industry action “is not°a question that can be answered scientifically. Because our knowledge will almost always be incomplete, science cannot answer the question, "How much knowledge do we need before we act?"...The regulator or legislator, therefore, faces a difficult question. Does he propose a control strategy that will cost the public money but whose effectiveness cannot be judged in solving a problem which is still not well defined? Society will have to decide the answer to that question. Science cannot. However, as EPA Administrator Ruchelshaus observed, research can answer the question of "whether we have an emergency on our hands, whether we have something that is a much longer-term kind of a phenomenon at which we could pace our response to it consistent with the nature of whatever harm may be occurring." The importance of research was stated directly by Dr. Bernabo in response to questions from the Committee: The understanding of mechanisms in the acid rain issue is vital to avoid spending large amounts of money, dislocating industry and workers, etc, without a reasonably firm foundation that the action will produce the desired benefits.
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CRS84686ENRpage76
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, , _.,_‘.4,c_.._44,c.,._—e,e.., jg: . «r——.—i-A-K:-=-—x-==—-2-=u—==*‘==‘=='—‘-‘-r" rm?’ ‘#44 4 CRS-64 THOMAS ALTMEYER I VICE PRESIDENT, CONGRESSIONAL AND GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS MINING AND RECLAMATION COUNCIL I Initiation of a massive reduction program at this time is neither justified nor supportable. Given existing knowledge and projected trends of emissions_ we do have time to develop
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CRS84686ENRpage69
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-the-right-thing policy. And we believe the federal government is doing the right thing by pursuing an accelerated research program under the National Acid Precipitation Act. CARL BAGGE NATIONAL COAL ASSOCIATION The coal industry opposes legislation requiring immediate, massivel and costly reductions in S02 emissions as the means of correcting problems associated with environmental acidity. We do have time to wait. We
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CRS85631Epage37
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CRS-l6 be found. In essence, Congress anticipated that the general author- ization to the Secretary to set the prevailing wage would encompass the power to find a way to do so in the interstitial areas not speci- fically provided for in the statute." The central issue, where the Appeals Court was concerned, appears to have been the delegation of power to the Secretary to determine an appropriate basis for making wage determinations -- and it held that such a delegation had, indeed, been made. Therefore, the Court rejected the position set forth by the BCTD and affirmed that the Secretary possessed discretionary authority in this area consistent with the general purposes of the statute. The Court of Appeals went into some detail to assure that its position, in reversing the District Court, was clear. "We review the Secretary's choice of methods only to ensure that he is acting consistently with the purposes of the statute and that his choice is not arbitrary. ‘We think it clear that the new regulation ‘is rational and furthers the purposes of the statute. The Secretary's justification for the provision was that, because of the disparity be- tween urban and rural wages, using demographically dissimilar counties for such determinations is unreliable. . . . Furthermore, the Secretary claimed, importation of high urban wages to rural areas has disrupted labor relations in rural areas because employees have been unwilling to return to their usual pay scales after a Davis-Bacon project has been completed. . . . His answer to the unions’ argument that higher urban wages are justified in nearby rural areas because it is the urban workers who often do the work was that if that is generally true the wage scales for the surrounding rural counties would reflect that. . . . All of this makes sense, and the new regulation has not been shown to undermine the central purpose of the statute, which is to ensure that federal contractors pay the wages prevailing in the locality of the pro- ject. While it might be true that in some cases the reference rural counties might be more distant from the urban center than the project county, and that looking to them thus would not reveal the higher wages that should be paid in the project county, the bare allegation of that fact cannot overturn the Secretary's informed exercise of authority in an area in which he has considerable expertise and discretion." The Court of Appeals noted that the District Court had "relied exclusively or almost exclusively on what it saw as a longstanding and consistent administrative practice contrary to the proposed regulations in striking down the rural-urban
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CRS85631Epage33
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of the District _2_g_/ mm, July 23, 1982. p. D1-D6. 543 F.Supp. 1282 (D.n.C.. 1982). 22/ Judge Greene allowed to stand the Department's proposal to change the current "30 percent rule" to a "50 percent rule" -- i.e., that at least 50 percent of workers employed in a craft/skill classification in the area must be paid a particular wage for it to be said to be prevailing. A 23/V DLR
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