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CRS87233Epage14
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CRS-10 The important measure for assessing the likely effect on tax structure is presented in the last column of the table. This presents the ratio of the sales tax price to the price of other deductible taxes before and after tax reform. This relative sales tax price increases by 8.6 percent, almost four points lower than the percentage increase in the sales tax considered alone. Thus, in spite
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CRS87233Epage03
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of State Taxes to be Increased - . . . . . . . . . 7O TABLE 3; The Effect of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 on the After-Federal-Tax Price of the Sales Tax Relative to Other DeduCtib1e“TaXeS~ 0 9£.'. Ovt 0 0 0 t.o 0 0 0-0»: 0 0-0.0 r 0 0 0 11. TABLE 4. Differential between Each State3s Top Effective Marginal Income Tax Rate and the Average Top Effective Income Tax Rate for All Statestf Before and After
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CRS87233Epage26
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CRS-22 citizen preferences concerning public sector size, the linkage- induced change in spending is expected to be small in almost all States. a Third, the incentives created for tax structure adjustment are Snot that great. Even though deductibility of the sales tax has been eliminated, the reductions in Federal statutory tax rates and in the number of itemizers causes the after-Federal-tax cost of other deductible taxes to increase as well. This moderates the increase in the cost of the sales tax relative to alternative tax sources. when combined with some evidence suggesting sales tax use is not particularly sensitive to its cost, this suggests minimal adjustment in State and local tax structures. In addition, those States that return most of the linkage~induced increase in income tax revenues to citizens may adjust their income tax structure rather than alter the relative contributions of tax sources by reducing other types of taxes. Fourth, the importance of interstate tax differentials as locational incentives has been increased by tax reform. For some States the increase in tax rate differentials is fairly large. The actual effect on locational choices depends on a variety of factors. Some incentive is provided for States to adjust their tax structures to return to the previous level of tax rate differentials. - Finally, the greatest potential effect on the State and local sector is its use of tax-exempt bonds to finance capital construction. Most States will be forced either to substantially reduce the volume of bonds they issue or to change the degree of financial responsibility they bear for these bonds. M
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CRS87233Epage15
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CRS-11 TABLE 3. The Effect of the Tax Reform Act of 1986 on the V After-Federal-Tax Price of the Sales Tax Relative to Other Deductible Taxes After—Federal-Tax Price Ratio of sales to. Deductible ' deductible taxes taxes Sales tax" (col. 2/col. 1) Before Tax Reform A 0.884 0.334 1.000 After Tax Reform 0.921 1.00 1.030 Percentage change ‘ (row 2 - row 1)/row 1 4.192 13.122 8.6% Source
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CRS83522Spage16
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, a continuing dilemma in higher education may be how to resolve the conflict between the pressures resulting from (1) State and Federal controls, (2) external review to assure maintenance of quality and institutional standards, and (3) the desire to maintain institutional autonomy. STUDENT AID The extension of college opportunities to virtually all interested youth in the U.S. can be traced through two
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“\_/ CRS-19 higher education are the States, local governments, the Federal Government, and private sources. gg/ In providing higher education institutional support, the States (and local- ities for community colleges) have concentrated heavily on support of public in- stitutions. Direct Federal support for institutions has been limited to specific purposes or types of institutions, but the funds
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for the appropriate responses at the institutional, State, and Federal levels. During the 1960s, the college-age cohort grew by 53 percent (from 16.1 mil- lion in 1960 to 24.7 million in 1970). This growth slowed to a 19 percent in- crease during the 1970s (to 29.5 million in 1980). However, this trend is expected to reverse in the 1980s with this cohort shrinking by 15 percent (to 25.1 million in 1990-or
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CRS83522Spage32
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under the American Council on Education's program for evaluation of college level offerings by cor- vporations. Some of these programs have expanded to the point that firms have received approval for offering baccalaureate and advanced degrees. §§/ géf Rich, Spencer. Off-Campus: Schools for Dollars. The Washington. Post, November 11, 1980. pp. A-1, A-8; and Brazziel, p. S. 2]] Davies, Goeffrey
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CRS83522Spage18
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CRS-14 TABLE 1. Total Budgets for Resident Students Living in Institutional Housing Academic Year Type and Control of Institution Public Private Public Private 2-year 2-year 4-year 4-year ].972"73ooooooooooooooooooooo0 1977480000000000000000000000 198218300OOOOOOOOOIOOOOOOOOOO l I _g/ Data not available. Source: College Entrance Examination Board publications for various years. Note: Total
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for the past 10 years were available, total budgets have more than doubled. The rate of increase was relatively consistent for all groups of insti- tutions, but the disparity has increased. For example, the difference in total budget between public and private four-year institutions was less than $1,300 in 1972-73, but had increased to'over $3,000 by 1982-83. 15/ Gladieux, Lawrence E. The Future
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CRS-16 3. Has the current student aid program, combined with open admission to many institutions, made college a relatively inexpensive "escape" especially for ambivalent or weakly motivated students? 4. Does the program relieve financially able parents of their tradi- tional responsibility to pay the college expenses of their children? 5. Does student aid subsidize students beyond
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CRS83522Spage03
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ABSTRACT American higher education is confronted with interactive challenges related to demographics, a reduced rate of economic growth, increased private sector cooperation, and rising demands from other social services. These developments will impact on institutional enrollment, role and mission, and fiscal support, as well as possible Federal options.
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CRS84686ENRpage17
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CRS-5 There is a scientific consensus that man-made emissions have increased the acidity of precipitation over eastern North America, but also that existing data and studies do not constitute an adequate basis for determining the details of past patterns in precipitation acidity. Problems with earlier determination of pH and other factors have called into question all previous at- tempts to define specific rates and patterns of increased precipi- tation acidity in eastern North America. Monitoring and research efforts are now underway that will allow improved interpretation of historical data and confident assessment of trends in the future. -in "It is important to note that rainfall acidity, or "wet deposition" is only part of total acid deposition, although the most well-known. Perhaps an even greater portion of total acid deposition in some cases falls in T dry forms, particularly near emission sources. However, as stated by Dr. Bernabo in response to written questions from the Committee, no standardized scientific techniques currently exist to measure dry deposition on a routine basis: The relative ratio of wet to dry deposition is unknown. Dry depositon may account for 25% to 80% or more of the acidity deposited in some areas. The timing, amount, and composition of this wet and dry deposition can influence the effects on the sensitive receptors. While a national wet deposition network is operational, no standardized scientific techniques yet exist to measure dry deposition on a routine basis. Near the emission sources, dry deposition is believed to be an important contributor, possibly a predominant contributor, of acid-forming substances due in part to rapid settling of heavier particles. The ratio of wet to dry deposition is also very dependent on weather. If there is a period of low or no precipitation over a broad area, clearly the dry deposition would have to be greater than wet, which might be zero due to the lack of moisture. The National Program has accelerated its research effort on wet and dry acid deposition.
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CRS84686ENRpage09
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.Association Inc., testimony and statement *2. *3. *4_ *5. ,6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Edward L. Addison, President and Chief Exec. Officer, The Southern Co., for Edison Electric Institute -testimony, statement and research. Michael Bergman, Staff Scientist, American Public Power Associatio -- testimony and statement plus APPA research report % Carl Bagge, President, National Coal Association - testimony and statement plus
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CRS84686ENRpage32
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, ‘~ A " measure for creating'a desirable ecological balance that approach should be pursued. A cost-sharing federal-state prototype program might be advisable over the next ten years. It is hardly likely that even a large effort involving 200 lakes would cost as much as $20 million/year in 1983 dollars. [According to EPRI, lake-liming costs should average about $60 per acre. The 178 Adirondack
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CRS84686ENRpage82
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on gas use by powerplants and industry; (2) incorporating in proposed S02 reduction legislation performance standards rather than specific fuels or control strategies; and~(3) directing the Environmental Protection Agency to accept select use as a viable and desirable control technology- under existing provisions of the Clean Air Act. CLEAN COAL COALITION, INC. The Clean Coal Coalition therefore
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CRS84686ENRpage51
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CRS-39 Perhaps the most vigorous debate on compliance costs concerned the most appropriate reduction strategy to be employed if such reductions were deemed necessary. Several witnesses, including Senator Mitchell, the Alliance for Clean Energy (a low-sulfur coal group), the Mining and Reclamation Council, the American Public Power Association, and others, favored a "freedom of choice" reduction strategy that would allow utilities to choose whatever reduetion method they wished. Under such a scenario, most analyses indicate that fuel-switching from high to lower sulfur coals would be the first-choice of many utilities, increasing low sulfur coal production at the expense of high sulfur coal production. Concern about the socio-economic impact of significant fuel-switching has resulted in a different strategy to mandate technological controls and some form of cost-sharing--either through a tax on electricity generated or a tax on sulfur and nitrogen oxides emissions. Many witnesses were openly. hostile to cost-sharing; for euample, Dr. Haase of the Western Regional Council stated that cost-sharing would "unjustifiably spread the cost (of reductions) to western States where major and costly emission reduction programs have already been implemented and where the potential for a future acid precipitation problem is significantly less than in the East." A was a sound principle; in response to questions by Senator Mike Evans, he said: The principle there, in my view, is that it ought to be the user who pays. And if we go into any other - any other system, we find ourselves deciding consciously that we are going to subsidize a particular activity. And we do this all over the lot, I acknowledge, as a society. But I'm saying it would be a sounder approach here to have the particular energy system that produces the pollutant bear the cost of preventing it. However, given the distribution of costs discussed earlier, Administrator Ruckelshaus acknowledged the practical and political problems of the polluter pays principle in response to a question by Senator Bennett Johnston: Secretary Hodel agreed that "polluter pays"
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CRS84686ENRpage48
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cxs-3e Although considerable research is being conducted, most of the scientists who testified felt that science could answer the question: Do we know enough to act? As stated by Dr. Perhac: Let me sumarize this testimony by saying that I feel that a fairly strong consensus exists in the scientific community that many significant gaps exist in our understanding of the acidic deposition issue. Whether those gaps are great enough to preclude governmental or industry action “is not°a question that can be answered scientifically. Because our knowledge will almost always be incomplete, science cannot answer the question, "How much knowledge do we need before we act?"...The regulator or legislator, therefore, faces a difficult question. Does he propose a control strategy that will cost the public money but whose effectiveness cannot be judged in solving a problem which is still not well defined? Society will have to decide the answer to that question. Science cannot. However, as EPA Administrator Ruchelshaus observed, research can answer the question of "whether we have an emergency on our hands, whether we have something that is a much longer-term kind of a phenomenon at which we could pace our response to it consistent with the nature of whatever harm may be occurring." The importance of research was stated directly by Dr. Bernabo in response to questions from the Committee: The understanding of mechanisms in the acid rain issue is vital to avoid spending large amounts of money, dislocating industry and workers, etc, without a reasonably firm foundation that the action will produce the desired benefits.
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CRS84686ENRpage76
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, , _.,_‘.4,c_.._44,c.,._—e,e.., jg: . «r——.—i-A-K:-=-—x-==—-2-=u—==*‘==‘=='—‘-‘-r" rm?’ ‘#44 4 CRS-64 THOMAS ALTMEYER I VICE PRESIDENT, CONGRESSIONAL AND GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS MINING AND RECLAMATION COUNCIL I Initiation of a massive reduction program at this time is neither justified nor supportable. Given existing knowledge and projected trends of emissions_ we do have time to develop
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