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CRS85577EPWpage24
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CRS85577EPWpage05
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ABSTRACT This report portrays and discusses Federal spending for education programs in the context of a 26-year span: the past 20 years of actual experience (1965- 1984) and the spending plan for the next six years proposed in the President's 1986 budget. In addition to the 26-year review, various measures such as spending in constant dollars, as a percent of the gross national product (GNP
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CRS85577EPWpage21
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CR8-15 --Create tuition tax credits for elementary and secondary private school tuition fees. ,.'~»;»x;‘<-. --Create a tax incentive to encourage iowef and niddle-income families to save for their children's co11ege>educational expenses. v g»,;.;v --Initiate a voucher system for compensator§ education programs for the educationally disadvantaged-, A~”i=i T’ ” ,»
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CRS83522Spage33
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CRS-29 These cooperative programs illustrate the degree to which current activities involve joint ventures between the corporate employer and higher education insti- tutions. One of the continuing challenges is for both parties to recognize the pressures that impinge upon this relationship. In their efforts to respond to the interests of the firm, higher education institutions are being called upon to be more flexible in decisions related to traditional processes of course re- view, course content, staffing, and instructional settings. Also, rather than dealing with students on virtually an individual basis, the higher education in- stitution now finds itself dealing with a firm representing its own interest in education as well as the interests of a group of students. Consequently, the institution and the student are in a much less powerful bargaining position as decisions are made about offerings. The corporate employer, in turn, then has to cope with the traditional decision making process in higher education. Vari- ous observers have a continuing concern about the degree to which an institu- tion can alter normal decision making processes, staffing patterns, and time allocations, and still maintain the desired level of quality. FEDERAL ROLE The higher education delivery system in America consists of a complex matrix of private and public institutions that function with varying degrees of indepen- dence and dependence upon State agencies. The Federal Government's direct con- trol over institutions has been limited to setting criteria for an institution to participate in various Federal programs or receive Federal contracts. Vari- ous congressional actions have been taken to draw attention to selected national problems, to provide the fiscal resources needed to address these problems, to support "national interest" research activities, and to complement and supplement
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in these States enroll over 60 percent of the Nation's private-college students. 2/ Between 1976 and 1981, the enrollment at private four-year-institutions remained about the same. However, by 1986, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) projects a 13 percent decline (17 percent if the NCES low projections are used) for these institutions. No other group of institutions is projected
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that selected institutions might survive. The ,£Q/ The States and Higher Education: A Proud Past and a Vital Future, May 1976. ‘E3 the Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education: A Summary of Reports and Recommendations, October 1980. p. 81. ll] Does College Cost Too Much? Newsweek, April 12, l982. p. 56; and Private Colleges Could Be Hurt By Low Salaries, Delayed Maintenance. Higher Education
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CRS83522Spage26
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. For many adults, and especially for married women (with employed husbands), student aid under existing .g1/ Low or No Tuition: The Feasibility of a National Policy for the First Two Years of College, May 1975. ‘L3 The Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, 1980. p. 57. _2__8_/ Ibid. f
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CRS83522Spage29
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in resolving problems. Third, even though the cases may be viewed as exceptions, the single gifts of $100,000,000 to Emory University and Louisiana State University in successive years provide examples of the manner in which the economic power of private philanthropy can be used to support higher education. Fourth, as men- tioned previously, recent research contracts between industrial concerns and
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ISSUES Regardless of whether a number of institutions close, the possibility of declining enrollments makes faculty job security uncertain. As enrollments be- come stable or decline, and as institutions are faced with the necessity to curtail or terminate programs, these changes inevitably will have an impact on college and university faculty. As a result of large faculty expansions of the 19603, today
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.................................................. 9 STUDENT AID............................................................ 13 INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT.................................................. 18 PRIVATE SUPPORT AND COOPERATION....................... . . . . ... . . . . . . .... 25 ROLEO00000 0 0 0 0 0000000000000000000 0 0 O 0 0000000000000 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00000 O
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CRS-3 Other changes also can be predicted in the characteristics of higher educa- tion enrollments. Traditionally, enrollment trends in higher education have followed the trends of the 18- to 24-year old population. However, the 1980s already present a movement away from this direct relationship as higher educa- tion institutions attempt to attract more older students. Census reports indi- cate
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CRS84686ENRpage35
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CRS-23 There is no doubt that sufficiently high inputs of acid can acidify forest soils. It is not easy to define those "sufficiently high inputs," however, since one of the most crucial processes, soil weathering, cannot be easily quantified. Weathering in this context refers to the replenishment of available, or more precisely, exchangeable base cations from non-exchangeable soil reserves. It is a crucial process because it actually determines the degree to which soils can be acidified by acid deposition. That is, if acid deposition-accelerated leaching exceeds weathering, soils will acidify and if weathering keeps pace with leaching, no acidification will occur. .. - we - The relationship between acid deposition, mineral weathering, leaching, and the soil neutralizing capacity are not completely understood. Because of the lack of data, there is disagreement about whether acidification of the environment is occuring from acidic deposition, the rate at which it may be occurring, to what extent lakes and forests are buffered by the a watershed soil characteristics, and the subsequent long-term effects of an acid if ied environment . Natural Soil Acidification Process.‘ One of the most polarized discussions on effects of acidic deposition is whether soil is acidifying only or primarily through natural processes. The National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program states that a "The deposition of acidic substances on soils may be making only a minor contribution to the natural soil acidification process." But Dr. Bernabo, in response to questions asked at the hearing, states with respect to soils and forests, "Available evidence seems to support combined pollutent effcts on foliage, although soil-mediated processes cannot be ruled out at this time.”
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CRS-21 Terrestrial Environment Soils Soils link the aquatic and terrestrial environments. As stated in the preceding section on the aquatic environment, acidification vulnera- lwility of the ecosystem is usually related to overlying granitic soils Jith minimal natural neutralizing capacity. Managed Soils and Crops. There is general consensus that managed, agricultural soils are not very susceptible to detrimental effects from acid deposition. As Dr. Richard Klein and Hubert Vogelmann of the University of Vermont explain, "[s]uch lands are regularly fertilized and their acidity adjusted." Therefore, other pollutants may have more df an effect on crops than acidic deposition, either directly or through soiiémediated processes.‘ As Dr. Bernabo states: ; , Scientists have found little conclusive evidence for major direct effects of acid precipitation on vegetation at current deposition levels. The direct effects on crops appear less significant than those related to other air pollutants such as ozone. . . . Although future research is required to increase the certainty of our conclusions, concern over crop losses has decreased substantially. i Unmanaged Soils. Both positive and negative effecfs have been observed from the input of sulfur and nitrogen into the soil. The positive effects are exhibited because nitrogen and sulfur, the major components iof acidic deposition, are also primary plant nutrients, and sometimes act as a fertilizer. Negative effects are hotly debated. Dr. Bernabo states that "[f]or un- managed soils, recent studies on natural soils acidity production have decreased concerns over soil pH changes."
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CRS84686ENRpage14
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. the conventional wisdom regarding normal rainfall is that it has an acidity of about 5.6 on the pH scale. (On the pH scale of 0 to 14, pure water has a pH of 7.0. The lower the number, the more acid a substance; for example, lemon juice and vinegar have pHs of between 2 and 3. Since the pH scale is logarithmic, a pH of 6 is l0 times more acid than pure water, a pH of S is 100 times more acidic, a pH of 4 is 1000
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CRS-iv enactment of control legislation. But the majority of the witnesses felt that the benefits that might accrue from reducing emisions were much less certain than the costs and potentially adverse consequence of controls, so the majority of witnesses advocated further research before taking action on controls. As stated by Dr. Bernabo, "The understanding of mechanisms in the acid rain issue is vital to avoid spending large amounts of money, dislocating industry an — and workers, etc. without a reasonably firm foundation that the action will produce the desired benefits." 8. Many witnesses who opposed enacting control legislation before further research results were available nevertheless comented on certain principles that they felt any such legislation should contain. Among the principles mentioned were (a) that the polluter should pay--as opposed to cost-sharing; (b) that a balance between costs and benefits should be sought -by allowing sources to choose how to achieve any required emission reductions rather than by mandating technology; (c) that emissions should not be capped; and (d) that the use of coal should not be discouraged. 9. Research needs were noted by many witnesses, some of whom made general recommendations while others outlined detailed research proposals. The cited research needs fell into several categories, including: (a) research on the transport and transformation of precursor pollutants, sulfur dioxide and nitro~ gen oxides; (b) research on the effects of acid precipitation; (c) research on ecological phenomena that might be affected by acid precipitation, especially forest decline; (d) research on precipitation, lake, stream, and soil chem- istry; (e) monitoring; and (f) research, development, and demonstration of new°technologies for controling emissions.
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CRS84686ENRpage54
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. Also, testimony by Leon Green, of the Clean Coal Coalition, advocated the more intensive use of coal cleaning techniques to achieve about 2.5 million tons of S02 reductions at no net cost. Energygconsiderations Several witnesses at the hearing identified potential changes in energy usage that might occur due to acid rain legislation. The primary concern expressed by those witnesses
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CRS-l7 and by Dr. Perhac: We have already been in [the Adirondacks] for five years, moni- toring regularly, and we can measure no change under present condi- tions. Particular notice is taken of reports that sulfate concentrations in New York State streams decreased an average of 1 to 4 percent per year between 1965 and 1978. Mr. Young and others observed that despite the reported decrease
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CRS-32 TABLE 1: Air Pollution Damage to Materials ms. of ‘ Materials Dajrrtage Principal Air ' Pollutants Other Environ- mental Factors Methods of . Measurements Mitigation Measures appearance Metals Corrosion. % Sulfur oxides and Moisture. air. Weight loss after removal Surface platingor coating. tarnishing other acid gases salt R or‘ corrosion products. Replacement with corrosion Reduced
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~ _"' I Congressional Research Service The Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540 Lew»?/3: I ‘ E‘ F I (>67? « A N Q EQNGER PRQPERYY 4:3? N A Wesnézneioxi %;§r2we;rsi+&y SUMMARY OF OVERSIGHT HEARINGS ON IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ACID PRECIPITATION ACT OF 1980 -In - Prepared at the Request of the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources U. S. Senate by Larry B. Parker Analyst
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